SEX-BASED MULTIDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF EXPLOSIVE POWER IN HANDBALL PLAYERS
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Sep 13, 2025
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Igor Ilić
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0076-2331
Milica Filipović
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8839-8110
Slavka Durlević
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-4829-5384
Nikola Stojanović
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9921-6391
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0076-2331
Milica Filipović
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8839-8110
Slavka Durlević
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-4829-5384
Nikola Stojanović
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9921-6391
Abstract
In this cross-sectional study, we quantified sex-based differences in explosive power among 32 second-division handball players (17 women, 15 men). Participants completed five field-based tests of explosive power: 20-m sprint (S20 m), countermovement jump (CMJ), standing long jump (SLJ), seated medicine-ball throw (SMBT), and supine medicine-ball throw (SUMBT). Descriptive statistics (minimum, maximum, and mean differences) were visualised using box-and-whisker plots, and data normality was confirmed with the Shapiro–Wilk test. A one-way multivariate analysis of variance indicated that sex explained 86% of the combined variance across all tests (Wilks’ λ = 0.141, F(5, 26) = 31.7, p < 0.001). Follow-up univariate analyses revealed statistically significant differences in every test (p < 0.001) with large effect sizes (partial η² = 0.46–0.82). Men outperformed women by 27% in the SUMBT and 22% in the SMBT, achieved 31% higher CMJ values, completed the S20 m 21% faster, and recorded 9% longer SLJ distances. These results demonstrate substantial sex disparities in whole-body power, upper-body power, lower-body power at the sub-elite level. Emphasising upper-body throwing exercises, vertical jump training, and short-distance sprinting in women’s conditioning programmes may yield significant performance gains and provide evidence-based benchmarks for talent development.
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Keywords
sex differences, team-sport athletes, performance profiling, power assessment, multivariate analysis, explosive strength
References
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12. Granacher, U., Lesinski, M., Büsch, D., Muehlbauer, T., Prieske, O., Puta, C., Gollhofer, A. & Behm, D. G. (2016). Effects of resistance training in youth athletes on muscular fitness and athletic performance: a conceptual model for long-term athlete development. Frontiers in Physiology, 7, 164. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fphys.2016.00164
13. Hammami, M., Gaamouri, N., Shephard, R. J., & Chelly, M. S. (2019). Effects of contrast strength vs. plyometric training on lower-limb explosive performance, ability to change direction and neuromuscular adaptation in soccer players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 33(8), 2094–2103. https://doi. org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000002425
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15. Hermassi, S., Chelly, M. S., Tabka, Z., Shephard, R. J., & Chamari, K. (2011). Effects of 8-week in-season upper and lower limb heavy resistance training on the peak power, throwing velocity, and sprint performance of elite male handball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(9), 2424–2433. https://doi. org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182030edb
16. Horwath, O., Apró, W., Moberg, M., Godhe, M., Helge, T., Ekblom, M., Lindén Hirschberg, A., & Ekblom, B. (2020). Fiber type-specific hypertrophy and increased capillarization in skeletal muscle following testosterone administration in young women. Journal of Applied Physiology, 128(5), 1240– 1251. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00893.2019
17. Hunter, S. K. (2014). Sex differences in human fatigability: mechanisms and insight to physiological responses. Acta Physiologica, 210(4), 768–789. https:// doi.org/10.1111/apha.12234
18. Ilić, H. S., Popoviċ Ilić, T., Ilić, I., Mekić, H., & Petkoviċ, E. (2014). Comparison of motor and functional abilities of young handball players and students. Research in Kinesiology, 42(2), 160–163.
19. Ilić, I. (2016). Structures and differences of the cognitive abilities of top handball, volleyball, basketball and soccer players. Facta Universitatis, Series: Physical Education and Sport, 403-410.
20. Ilić, I., Stanković, V., & Ilić, H. S. (2020). The frequency of technical and tactical offensive actions of elite Serbian handball teams. Gymnasium, 21(2, Suppl. 2), 92–96. https://doi.org/10.29081/gsjesh.2020.21.2s.07
21. Ilić, I., Durlević, S., Bubanj, S., Bjelica, B., Aksović, N., & Dobrescu, T. (2023). Impact of explosive strength on shot speed in handball. Gymnasium, 24(2), 109–119. https://doi.org/10.29081/gsjesh.2023.24.2.07
22. Kraemer, W. J., & Ratamess, N. A. (2005). Hormonal responses and adaptations to resistance exercise and training. Sports Medicine, 35, 339–361.
23. Lidor, R., & Ziv, G. (2010). Physical and physiological attributes of female volleyball players-a review. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(7), 1963–1973. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181ddf835
24. Lu, G., & Duan, Y. (2024). Sex differences in the adaptations in maximal strength and anaerobic power to upper body plyometric training. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 21304. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-72234-0
25. Massuca, L., Branco, B., Miarka, B., & Fragoso, I. (2015). Physical fitness attributes of team-handball players are related to playing position and performance level. Asian Journal of Sports Medicine, 6(1), e24712. https://doi.org/10.5812/ asjsm.24712
26. Marques, M. C., & González-Badillo, J. J. (2006). In-season resistance training and detraining in professional team handball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20(3), 563–571. https://doi.org/10.1519/R-17365.1
27. Michalsik, L. B., & Aagaard, P. (2015). Physical demands in elite team handball: Comparisons between male and female players. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 55(9), 878–891.
28. Newton, R. U., & Kraemer, W. J. (2006). Developing explosive muscular power: Implications for a mixed methods training strategy. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 16(5), 20–31.
29. Osborne, J. O., Kildalsen, I., Pedersen, S., Pettersen, S. A., & Welde, B. (2025). Test–retest reliability of strength, power, agility, and sprint performance in female team handball players. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 28(3), 249–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2024.11.008
30. Pereira, L. A., Nimphius, S., Kobal, R., Kitamura, K., Turisco, L. A. L., Orsi, R. C., Cal Abad, C. C., & Loturco, I. (2018). Relationship between change of direction, speed, and power in male and female national Olympic team handball athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 32(10), 2987–2994. https://doi. org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000002494
31. Petronijević, M., Ohnjec, K., & Dopsaj, M. (2025). Differences in contractile characteristics among various muscle groups in youth elite female team handball players compared to a control group. Sports, 13(2), 27. https://doi. org/10.3390/sports13020027
32. Spieszny, M., & Zubik, M. (2018). Modification of strength training programs in handball players and its influence on power during the competitive period. Journal of Human Kinetics, 63, 149–160. https://doi.org/10.2478/ hukin-2018-0015
33. Stanković, M., Katanić, B., Govindasamy, K., Badau, A., Badau, D., Masanovic, B., & Bojić, I. (2025). Seasonal changes in body composition, jump, sprint, and agility performance among elite female handball players. Applied Sciences, 15(11), 5846. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15115846
34. Srinivas-Shankar, U., Roberts, S. A., Connolly, M. J., O’Connell, M. D., Adams, J. E., Oldham, J. A., & Wu, F. C. (2010). Effects of testosterone on muscle strength, physical function, body composition, and quality of life in intermediate-frail and frail elderly men: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 95(2), 639–650. https://doi. org/10.1210/jc.2009-1251
35. Thibault, V., Guillaume, M., Berthelot, G., Helou, N. E., Schaal, K., Quinquis, L., Nassif, H., Tafflet, M., Escolano, S., Hermine, O., & Toussaint, J. F. (2010). Women and men in sport performance: the gender gap has not evolved since 1983. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 9(2), 214–223.
36. Vila, H. (2023). The effects of a high intensity resistance and eccentric strength training program on the performance of handball players. Retos, 50, 1333– 13339. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v50.98948
37. Wagner, H., Fuchs, P., Fusco, A., Fuchs, P. X., Bell, J. W., & Duvillard, S. P. v. (2019). Physical performance in elite male and female team-handball players. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 14(1), 60–67. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2018-0014
38. Wang, R., Li, Q., & Xue, W. (2024). Effects of small-sided game training on lower limb explosive strength in handball players: a single-arm meta-analysis. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 6, 1477347. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fspor.2024.1477347
39. Wei, X., Zhang, J., Wu, J., & et al. (2024). Relationship between team ranking and physical fitness in elite male handball players in different playing positions. Scientific Reports, 14, 3206. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-53435-z
2. Aksović, N., Bjelica, B., Ilić, I., Ilić, H. S. & Miletić, M. (2022). Structure of situational motor abilities in handball. Sport and Health, 16(1), 111–120. https://doi.org/10.7251/SIZEN2101111A
3. Aouichaoui, C., Krichen, S., Tounsi, M., Ammar, A., Tabka, O., Chatti, S., Zaouali, M., Zouch, M., & Trabelsi, Y. (2024). Reference values of physical performance in handball players aged 13–19 years: Taking into account their biological maturity. Clinics and Practice, 14(1), 305–326. https://doi.org/10.3390/ clinpract14010024
4. Bragazzi, N. L., Rouissi, M., Hermassi, S., & Chamari, K. (2020). Resistance training and handball players’ isokinetic, isometric and maximal strength, muscle power and throwing ball velocity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(8), 2663. https://doi. org/10.3390/ijerph17082663
5. Chelly, M. S., Hermassi, S., Aouadi, R., & Shephard, R. J. (2014). Effects of 8-week in-season plyometric training on upper and lower limb performance of elite adolescent handball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 28(5), 1401–1410. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000000279
6. Coelho-Júnior, H. J., Marques, F. L., Sousa, C. V., Marzetti, E., & Aguiar, S. D. S. (2024). Age-and sex-specific normative values for muscle mass parameters in 18,625 Brazilian adults. Frontiers in Public Health, 11, 1287994. https://doi. org/10.3389/fpubh.2023.1287994
7. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Routledge https://doi. org/10.4324/9780203771587
8. Cormie, P., McGuigan, M. R., & Newton, R. U. (2010). Influence of strength on magnitude and mechanisms of adaptation to power training. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 42(8), 1566–1581. https://doi.org/10.1249/ MSS.0b013e3181cf818d
9. Cormie, P., McGuigan, M. R., & Newton, R. U. (2011a). Developing maximal neuromuscular power: Part 1–biological basis of maximal power production. Sports Medicine, 41(1), 17–38. https://doi.org/10.2165/11537690- 000000000-00000
10. Cormie, P., McGuigan, M. R., & Newton, R. U. (2011b). Developing maximal neuromuscular power: part 2—training considerations for improving maximal power production. Sports Medicine, 41, 125–146. https://doi. org/10.2165/11538500-000000000-00000
11. Gaamouri, N., Hammami, M., Cherni, Y., Rosemann, T., Knechtle, B., Chelly, M. S., & van den Tillaar, R. (2023). The effects of 10-week plyometric training program on athletic performance in youth female handball players. Frontiers in sports and active living, 5, 1193026. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2023.1193026
12. Granacher, U., Lesinski, M., Büsch, D., Muehlbauer, T., Prieske, O., Puta, C., Gollhofer, A. & Behm, D. G. (2016). Effects of resistance training in youth athletes on muscular fitness and athletic performance: a conceptual model for long-term athlete development. Frontiers in Physiology, 7, 164. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fphys.2016.00164
13. Hammami, M., Gaamouri, N., Shephard, R. J., & Chelly, M. S. (2019). Effects of contrast strength vs. plyometric training on lower-limb explosive performance, ability to change direction and neuromuscular adaptation in soccer players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 33(8), 2094–2103. https://doi. org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000002425
14. Handelsman, D. J., Hirschberg, A. L., & Bermon, S. (2018). Circulating testosterone as the hormonal basis of sex differences in athletic performance. Endocrine Reviews, 39(5), 803–829. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2018-00020
15. Hermassi, S., Chelly, M. S., Tabka, Z., Shephard, R. J., & Chamari, K. (2011). Effects of 8-week in-season upper and lower limb heavy resistance training on the peak power, throwing velocity, and sprint performance of elite male handball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 25(9), 2424–2433. https://doi. org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182030edb
16. Horwath, O., Apró, W., Moberg, M., Godhe, M., Helge, T., Ekblom, M., Lindén Hirschberg, A., & Ekblom, B. (2020). Fiber type-specific hypertrophy and increased capillarization in skeletal muscle following testosterone administration in young women. Journal of Applied Physiology, 128(5), 1240– 1251. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00893.2019
17. Hunter, S. K. (2014). Sex differences in human fatigability: mechanisms and insight to physiological responses. Acta Physiologica, 210(4), 768–789. https:// doi.org/10.1111/apha.12234
18. Ilić, H. S., Popoviċ Ilić, T., Ilić, I., Mekić, H., & Petkoviċ, E. (2014). Comparison of motor and functional abilities of young handball players and students. Research in Kinesiology, 42(2), 160–163.
19. Ilić, I. (2016). Structures and differences of the cognitive abilities of top handball, volleyball, basketball and soccer players. Facta Universitatis, Series: Physical Education and Sport, 403-410.
20. Ilić, I., Stanković, V., & Ilić, H. S. (2020). The frequency of technical and tactical offensive actions of elite Serbian handball teams. Gymnasium, 21(2, Suppl. 2), 92–96. https://doi.org/10.29081/gsjesh.2020.21.2s.07
21. Ilić, I., Durlević, S., Bubanj, S., Bjelica, B., Aksović, N., & Dobrescu, T. (2023). Impact of explosive strength on shot speed in handball. Gymnasium, 24(2), 109–119. https://doi.org/10.29081/gsjesh.2023.24.2.07
22. Kraemer, W. J., & Ratamess, N. A. (2005). Hormonal responses and adaptations to resistance exercise and training. Sports Medicine, 35, 339–361.
23. Lidor, R., & Ziv, G. (2010). Physical and physiological attributes of female volleyball players-a review. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(7), 1963–1973. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181ddf835
24. Lu, G., & Duan, Y. (2024). Sex differences in the adaptations in maximal strength and anaerobic power to upper body plyometric training. Scientific Reports, 14(1), 21304. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-72234-0
25. Massuca, L., Branco, B., Miarka, B., & Fragoso, I. (2015). Physical fitness attributes of team-handball players are related to playing position and performance level. Asian Journal of Sports Medicine, 6(1), e24712. https://doi.org/10.5812/ asjsm.24712
26. Marques, M. C., & González-Badillo, J. J. (2006). In-season resistance training and detraining in professional team handball players. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 20(3), 563–571. https://doi.org/10.1519/R-17365.1
27. Michalsik, L. B., & Aagaard, P. (2015). Physical demands in elite team handball: Comparisons between male and female players. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 55(9), 878–891.
28. Newton, R. U., & Kraemer, W. J. (2006). Developing explosive muscular power: Implications for a mixed methods training strategy. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 16(5), 20–31.
29. Osborne, J. O., Kildalsen, I., Pedersen, S., Pettersen, S. A., & Welde, B. (2025). Test–retest reliability of strength, power, agility, and sprint performance in female team handball players. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 28(3), 249–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2024.11.008
30. Pereira, L. A., Nimphius, S., Kobal, R., Kitamura, K., Turisco, L. A. L., Orsi, R. C., Cal Abad, C. C., & Loturco, I. (2018). Relationship between change of direction, speed, and power in male and female national Olympic team handball athletes. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 32(10), 2987–2994. https://doi. org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000002494
31. Petronijević, M., Ohnjec, K., & Dopsaj, M. (2025). Differences in contractile characteristics among various muscle groups in youth elite female team handball players compared to a control group. Sports, 13(2), 27. https://doi. org/10.3390/sports13020027
32. Spieszny, M., & Zubik, M. (2018). Modification of strength training programs in handball players and its influence on power during the competitive period. Journal of Human Kinetics, 63, 149–160. https://doi.org/10.2478/ hukin-2018-0015
33. Stanković, M., Katanić, B., Govindasamy, K., Badau, A., Badau, D., Masanovic, B., & Bojić, I. (2025). Seasonal changes in body composition, jump, sprint, and agility performance among elite female handball players. Applied Sciences, 15(11), 5846. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15115846
34. Srinivas-Shankar, U., Roberts, S. A., Connolly, M. J., O’Connell, M. D., Adams, J. E., Oldham, J. A., & Wu, F. C. (2010). Effects of testosterone on muscle strength, physical function, body composition, and quality of life in intermediate-frail and frail elderly men: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 95(2), 639–650. https://doi. org/10.1210/jc.2009-1251
35. Thibault, V., Guillaume, M., Berthelot, G., Helou, N. E., Schaal, K., Quinquis, L., Nassif, H., Tafflet, M., Escolano, S., Hermine, O., & Toussaint, J. F. (2010). Women and men in sport performance: the gender gap has not evolved since 1983. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 9(2), 214–223.
36. Vila, H. (2023). The effects of a high intensity resistance and eccentric strength training program on the performance of handball players. Retos, 50, 1333– 13339. https://doi.org/10.47197/retos.v50.98948
37. Wagner, H., Fuchs, P., Fusco, A., Fuchs, P. X., Bell, J. W., & Duvillard, S. P. v. (2019). Physical performance in elite male and female team-handball players. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 14(1), 60–67. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2018-0014
38. Wang, R., Li, Q., & Xue, W. (2024). Effects of small-sided game training on lower limb explosive strength in handball players: a single-arm meta-analysis. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 6, 1477347. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fspor.2024.1477347
39. Wei, X., Zhang, J., Wu, J., & et al. (2024). Relationship between team ranking and physical fitness in elite male handball players in different playing positions. Scientific Reports, 14, 3206. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-53435-z
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Ilić, I., Filipović, M., Durlević, S., & Stojanović, N. (2025). SEX-BASED MULTIDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS OF EXPLOSIVE POWER IN HANDBALL PLAYERS. Physical Education and Sport Through The Centuries, 12(2), 13–25. Retrieved from https://phedss.fsfv-pr.rs/index.php/phedss/article/view/34
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